Socio-Cultural Movements in Medieval Odisha (1500-1600): The Legacy of Achyutananda Das

Original Writing: Bula Das
Edited and Rewritten: Brajabandhu Mahanta, MCA, MA

The socio-cultural life of medieval Odisha presents an important subject of study from various perspectives. The Bhakti movement, which gained momentum during this period across different regions, had a profound impact on society, culture, religion, and literature. Across the country—north, south, east, and west—a multitude of saint poets emerged to reform society. Most of them were wanderers, devoted to God and dedicated to serving humanity. They stood against established institutions, monastic orders, sectarian zealotry, and the caste discriminations prevalent in society.

Similarly, the medieval Odia saint poets, largely from the lower strata of society, often identified themselves as Sudramunis. They propagated Bhakti, Sunya, and Nirguna philosophies through the region’s popular dialects, while also raising their voices against the social evils of the time.

The period following Sarala Das is known as the ‘Age of Panchasakha’ in Odia literature. This era is named after five prominent figures: Balaram Das, Jagannath Das, Achyutananda Das, Yasovanta Das, and Ananta Das, who flourished during the reign of Prataprudradev in the 16th century. The works of these five luminaries, along with other poets from the later part of the period, form a rich legacy in Odia literature.

Sri Chaitanya, the Vaishnav saint from Bengal, who visited Odisha in 1510 CE., deeply influenced the Panchasakha poets. Their writings, which centered around social reforms, rejected the authority of professional priests, challenged the caste system, and advocated for the right of Sudras to read and write the Vedas and Puranas. Their main goal was to establish a society based on equality and justice. They consistently emphasized that one’s social standing should be determined by merit and character, not by birth or caste.

This analysis seeks to evaluate the contributions of the saint-poet Achyutananda Das, particularly in the fields of social reform, regional literature, the spread of spiritual knowledge to the masses, and his efforts to establish an egalitarian social order.

Achyutananda Das was a prominent figure in the Panchasakha movement. Born in 1482 A.D. in the village of Tilakana, located on the banks of the Chitrotpala River in Cuttack district, he hailed from a Karana family. His father, Dinabandhu Khuntia, and his mother, Padmavati, had long been childless. According to a folk tale, they prayed to God Jagannath, who promised them a child. He instructed them to visit Puri and, upon seeing a boy in front of them, they would be blessed with that child as their son. This boy was Achyutananda. In his childhood, Achyutananda showed little interest in studies. However, when a monk visited his village and initiated him into faith, his perspective changed. Later, his parents took him to Puri, where Achyutananda embraced Vaishnavism under the guidance of Sri Chaitanya.

There is some controversy regarding Achyutananda’s birth and caste. Dr. Ratnakar Chaini, for instance, suggests that Achyutananda could have been Agani Achyuta, Gopal (milkman) Achyuta, Kaivarta (fisherman) Achyuta, Kamar (blacksmith) Achyuta, and Dina (poor) Achyuta—figures that may all be the same person.

Achyutananda was a contemporary of King Prataprudradev, and his grandfather served as a private secretary to the king. His father, Dinabandhu, was honored with the title ‘Khuntia’ by the king. Despite his family’s connections, Achyutananda considered himself a Sudra, a claim that appears in his works. He also identified as Gopal (milkman) and Kaivarta (fisherman), as reflected in his writings such as Gopalanka Ogala and Kaivarta Gita. Achyutananda’s family was impoverished, and he often referred to himself as “Dina” (poor) Achyuta due to his humble beginnings.

Through his writings, Achyutananda sought to bring about radical social change. His contributions to literature were vast, surpassing other members of the Panchasakha group in terms of creative output. According to his Anakara Samhita, he claimed to have authored thirty-six Samhitas, seventy-eight Gitas, twenty-seven Vansanucharitas, twenty-two Upavansanucharitas, one hundred Bhavisya Malikas, seven volumes of Harivamsas, along with various other works, including Koiliks, Chautisas, Tikas, Vilasas, Nirnayas, Ogalas, Gujjaris, and Bhajanas. Many of his works remain unpublished, though some have been made available by the Achyutananda Smruti Sansad, an organization dedicated to promoting his legacy.

Achyutananda Das was not only a saint poet but also a critic of contemporary society. His visionary and prophetic poems, known as Malikas, reflect his extraordinary foresight. Although his writings often address future events, they also capture the social conditions of his time. A recurring theme in his Malikas is that the Brahmins would descend to the level of Sudras, caste distinctions would vanish, and after several catastrophes, a new prophet would lead a spiritual revival. Achyutananda’s writings allude to the socio-political instability and unrest of his era, particularly the Muslim invasions of Odisha during the reigns of Gajapati Prataprudradev (1518) and Mukundadev (1568). The attacks on the Jagannath temple in Puri, particularly the destruction of idols by the Sultan of Bengal, Hussain Saha, in 1510 and by Kalapahad, a commander of Sulaiman Karrani, in 1568, deeply affected the people of Odisha. Achyutananda, along with other bhaktakavis, warned the people of these dangers through devotional songs.

In his personal life and literary endeavors, Achyutananda Das emerged as a social rebel. He championed the cause of a casteless and classless society, as evidenced in his Varan Charita Gita, which embodied his belief in equality and justice for all.

Achyutananda’s Harivamsa, like Sarala Das’s Mahabharata and Balaram Das’s Ramayana, is an original work that retains only the basic framework of its Sanskrit counterpart. It is not a direct reproduction of the original, as both the characters and the places are adapted to fit the local context. The work begins with the birth of Nanda, Kamsa, and Lord Krishna, and follows the events of Krishna’s boyhood, the creation of Mount Meru, and the slaying of demons such as Aghasura, Bakasura, and Yamalasura. It includes episodes like Kaliya Dalana (the subjugation of Kaliya), Kubuja Mokshaprapti (the liberation of Kubja), Rukmini Harana (the abduction of Rukmini), the marriages of Krishna with Satyavati, Kamala, and Tulasi, and his sending of Uddhava to the Gopis. The text also describes Subhadra Parinaya (the marriage of Subhadra), Kokuabhaya (the destruction of the Yadu clan), and ends with the death of Krishna at the hands of Yara, the hunter.

This Harivamsa focuses on the life of Krishna, the Lord of the Gopal (cowherd) class, likely to uplift the social status and awareness of the milkmen community in Odisha. It holds a revered place in the region, second only to Jagannath Das’s Bhagavata among the people, and is considered sacred. Devout rural communities often arrange full recitations of all seven volumes of the text as a way of fulfilling vows after prayers are answered. Its simple and clear language continues to captivate people even today.

Among the Panchasakha, Achyutananda was the most active social reformer. His contributions to uplifting the marginalized communities of Odisha will be long remembered. He was a spiritual leader for millions of Kaivartas (fishermen), Gopals (cowherds), and Kamaras (blacksmiths). Achyutananda lived among them and, for the first time in their history, imparted sacred texts and mantras to these communities. He wrote Kaivarta Gita and Gopalanka Ogala to elevate the social standing of the Kaivartas and Gopalas.

In Kaivarta Gita, Achyutananda recounts the life of Dasaraja, the mythical king of the Kaivartas, through a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna. To restore pride to the Kaivartas, the poet narrates how Dasaraja was born from Krishna’s ear and how Krishna, in turn, provided him with a boat and a horse for his livelihood through trade. This work is regarded as an important social document, reflecting the resurgence of the Sudra communities in medieval Odisha. It not only connects the Kaivartas’ age-old traditions, customs, occupations, and festivals to religious justifications but also promotes devotion to Lord Jagannath, Goddess Vasuli, and Ananta Vasuki (the Nagacult). It advocates for the eradication of untouchability and also describes the maritime trade activities of the Kaivartas and their commercial relations with Sri Lanka.

Gopalanka Ogala is another highly popular creation by Achyutananda. Composed in a casual, conversational style, it explores themes related to the Radha-Krishna relationship, such as the flute, stick, rope, Vrindavan, buffalo horns, peacock feathers, and the plucking of flowers. During the Dola Purnima festival, the milkmen of Odisha sing these simple yet profound ideas while filling their pitchers with water. Gopalanka Ogala serves as both an entertainment and a source of comfort for the Gopal communities, preserving their cultural identity through song and celebration.

Achyutananda traveled extensively across Odisha to spread his faith and worldview. Deeply moved by the suffering of the poor and the exploitation of the common people by the state, he strongly criticized authoritarian rule. His writings denounce injustice and exploitation, where he metaphorically compares the subjects to dead bodies and the kings to vultures. To him, it was a curse for the people to endure such hardships. He further posited that kings would strip their subjects of their possessions, forcing them to flee into the forests. Achyutananda expressed a desire not to live to witness such a sorrowful condition of the people. His works clearly reflect a strong anti-feudal sentiment.

In his quest for spiritual knowledge, Achyutananda also traveled beyond Odisha to various pilgrim centers such as Magadha, Gaya, Mathura, Ayodhya, Kasi, Vrindavan, Mithila, Madurai, Dwaraka, Mayapuri, Dhanuskoti, and Kamaksha. During these travels, he encountered many fraudulent sanyasis. Criticizing them, he argued that one could not be a true meditator merely due to a beard or long hair. To Achyutananda, true sanyas was defined by qualities like determination, meditation, honesty, and truthfulness. He rejected the exploitative nature of priesthood and openly challenged the authority of Brahmins and the practice of godan (donating cows) that they upheld. Achyutananda raised several profound metaphysical questions, questioning the Brahmins about their identity, their emergence, the gods they worshipped, and the relationship between dharma and karma. These questions left the king and the Brahmins of the Jagannath temple in Puri surprised, compelling them to acknowledge his wisdom.

Another important work of Achyutananda is the Sunya Samhita, which focuses on the worship of the formless Almighty. In its first section, he emphasizes the importance of chanting God’s name. He then discusses the significance of the Guru in attaining true knowledge and achieving salvation. Achyutananda identifies the mantra “Hare Rama Krishna” as the “Maha Mantra” and explains its complex meanings, which are difficult for common people to grasp. The Sunya Samhita largely revolves around the concepts of Sunyavada (the doctrine of the formless) and Sunya-Sadhana (spiritual practice in the formless), incorporating terms like Alekha, Niranjana, Sunya, and Mahasunya. Achyutananda believed in the interconnection of knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), and meditation (yoga). He critiqued the pundits for failing to understand the deeper meanings of the Gita and brahma-jnana, noting that they only grasped its literal interpretation. To him, true understanding of the Gita required devotion, as bhakti was essential to uncover its inner teachings.

Ananta Goi or Agata Bhavisya is another significant work by Achyutananda, filled with profound philosophical teachings. It explores various perverse aspects of the Kali Yuga. His Anakara Samhita is a pivotal text that delves into the doctrines of Anakara Tattva, the theory of Nama, and its deep spiritual significance. Another important philosophical treatise by Achyutananda is Tattvabodhini, which addresses concepts such as Sunya, Omkara, Ardhamatra, Panchaveda, and Panchabhuta. In this work, he reflects on the transient nature of human life, comparing it to the fleeting bubble in water. He emphasizes that attaining salvation through Yoga is extremely difficult, and thus, chanting the divine Name is essential for salvation.

One of his most celebrated works is Gurubhakti Gita, in which he discusses the sacred bond between teacher and student. In this text, he also identifies himself as a milkman and speaks of having sixteen thousand disciples, symbolizing the 16,000 milkmaids from his past life. Additionally, he discusses the figures of Sri Chaitanya, Ramananda, Vishnusvami, Madhavacharya, and Nimbarka.

Other notable works of Achyutananda include Astagujjari, Brahmasankuli, Anakara Samhita, Akalita Samhita, Amara-Jamara Samhita, Sabdabrahma Samhita, Manivarana Gita, Manibandha Gita, Garuda Gita, Janapradipa Gita, Sunya Gita, Kaliyuga Gita, Kali Kalpa Gita, Adilila Gita, Avada Samhita, Dasa Patala, Udaya Kahani, Nirghanta Sabda, Nitya Rahasa, Varuna Charita, Sarasvata Malika, and many others. These works reflect his desire to bring about radical change in the socio-cultural fabric of society.

Achyutananda was highly critical of rituals, pilgrimages, idol worship, the caste system, and the authority of the Vedas. In his Charikhani or Sabdabrahma Samhita, he strongly criticized the traditional social structure and advocated for a new social order. He expressed that fasting, pilgrimages, and rituals were merely ways of inflicting pain on the body in different forms. He rejected idol worship and criticized rituals that were seen as material arrangements done for personal gain. For Achyutananda, true worship lay in chanting the name of the void (sunya) with deep love and devotion, rather than engaging in external practices like asana, purification, or body adornments. King Prataprudradev, impressed by his method of sunya worship, granted Achyutananda a place at Banki Muhan for his matha, which later came to be known as Gopal Matha.

Achyutananda Das, through his writings, called for a transformation in the socio-cultural life of the people. He sought to awaken consciousness against social injustice, religious exploitation, and educational deprivation. As a revolutionary poet, bhakta, and sadhaka, Achyutananda established himself as a champion of the marginalized and oppressed. His patriotism and humanism were reflected in his works, which greatly enlightened the rural masses. He showed immense empathy for the depressed sections of society, guiding them towards salvation through his Sunyapuran and Mahamantra. His contribution to social reform and literature, along with his efforts to build an egalitarian social order, will always be cherished by future generations. Thus, Achyutananda stands as one of the greatest social reformers of medieval Odisha.

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References:

1. B.K. Mallik, Medieval Odisha: Literature, Society, Economy, Mayur Publications, Bhubaneswar, 1996, p. 19.
2. Ibid, pp. 19-20.
3. A.B. Mohanty (ed.), Madala Panji, Prachi, 1971, pp. 54-55; see also Mayadhar Mansingh, History of Odia Literature, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1962, pp. 100-101; and H.S. Pattnaik & A.N. Parida (ed.), Aspects of Socio-Cultural Life in Early and Medieval Odisha, Bhubaneswar, 1996, pp. 73-74.
4. Surya Narayan Das, “Atibadi Jagannath Dasa,” Cuttack, 1978, p. 498.
5. R.K. Chaini (ed.), Achyutananda Gitavali, Cuttack, 1983, pp. 50-58.
6. Mayadhar Mansingh, op. cit., p. 118; see also P. Mukherjee, The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa, New Delhi, 1981, p. 83; B.K. Mallik, op. cit., p. 30.
7. Achyutananda Das, Anakara Samhita, A.B. Mohanty (ed.), Prachi Samiti, p. 1; see also Mayadhar Mansingh, op. cit., p. 118.
8. Achyutananda Das, Varana Charita Gita, Dharma Grantha Store, Cuttack, 1990, p. 102; see also R.K. Chaini (ed.), op. cit., 1983, p. 11; B.K. Mallik, op. cit., p. 30.
9. Achyutananda Das, Harivamsa (Patal Khanda and Seventh Khanda); see also B.K. Mallik, Paradigms of Dissent and Protest: Social Movements of Eastern India (1400-1700), Manohar, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 130-131.
10. Achyutananda Das, Kaivarta Gita, Radharaman Pustakalaya, Cuttack, 1956 (Preface); see also A.N. Parida, “Kaivarta Gita: Eka Samkshipta Adhayan,” in K.S. Behera (ed.), Sagar O Sahitya (Odia), Dasarathi Pustakalaya, Cuttack, 1993, pp. 196-208; B.K. Mallik, op. cit., 2004, p. 131.
11. Achyutananda Das, Gopalanka Ogala, Orissa Jagannatha Company, Cuttack, 1990 (Preface).
12. Achyutananda Das, Varana Charita Gita; see also R.K. Chaini (ed.), op. cit., 1983, pp. 105-106; B.K. Mallik, op. cit., p. 132.
13. Achyutananda Das, Bipra Chalaka, quoted by K. Pathisharma in B. Mohanty (ed.), Konark (Panchasakha Special), Odisha Sahitya Academy, Bhubaneswar, 1971, p. 148; see also B.K. Mallik, op. cit., pp. 132-133.
14. Achyutananda Das, Sunya Samhita, Chapter-VIII, Dharma Grantha Store, Cuttack, 1990, p. 52.
15. Achyutananda Das, Agata Bhavisya, Cat. No. O.L/863(b), Odisha State Museum, Folio No. 20.
16. Achyutananda Das, Brahmasankuli and Anakara Samhita, Prachi Granthamala, p. 34.
17. Achyutananda Das, Tattvabodhini, Dharma Grantha Store, 1985, p. 3.
18. Achyutananda Das, Gurubhakti Gita, Vol. III, 1966, p. 387.
19. Jagabanhu Singh, Prachina Utkal, Odisha Sahitya Academy, 1964, p. 108.
20. K.C. Sahoo (ed.), Charikhani ba Sabdabrahma Samhita of Achyutananda Das, Books and Books, Cuttack, 1979, p. 9; see also B.K. Mallik, op. cit., 2004, pp. 139-136.

First Published in Odisha review (December-2012)