Kharavela was the emperor of Kalinga during the second or first century BCE. The primary source for Kharavela is the Hathigumpha inscription Udaygiri. The inscription lacks a date, and only four of its seventeen lines are totally readable, with the remainder being illegible and disputed by experts. The inscription composed of Jainism-related terms recounts his reign year by year and praises him for public infrastructure projects, humanitarian activities, art patronage, and numerous military triumphs. Historians concur that this biography of Kharavela is the best and most comprehensive available. He was a Jain adherent.
Contents
- Family History of Kharavela
- Career and Achievements of Kharavela
- The Date of Kharavela
- Religion of Kharavela
- Successor of Kharavela
Kalinga’s post-Maurya history is obscure, and it is unknown precisely when this country regained its independence. With the discovery of the Hatigumpha inscription at Udayagiri in Bhubaneswar, a flood of light has been shed on this dark period of Odishan history. The facts contained in this inscription undoubtedly demonstrate that its author, Kharavela, the mighty monarch, was a noteworthy figure in contemporary India. His mighty sword slayed Kalinga’s venerable adversary Magadha and subjugated a vast area to Kalingan suzerainty. Kalinga reached its pinnacle of glory during his reign. The Hatigumpha inscription’s facts have been amply corroborated by an excavation at Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneswar and by some figures engraved in various caves at Udyagiri. The Hatigumpha inscription on Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar details the career and accomplishments of Kharavela, the Mahameghvahana family’s mighty ruler.
Family History of Kharavela
According to the Hatigumpha inscription, Kharavela was a member of the Chedi clan’s Mahameghavahana family. The Chedis originally ruled in Madhyadesa or Magadha, and it has been suggested that a branch of this illustrious royal family made its way to Kalinga and established its sway there. Although we do not know when they arrived in Kalinga, the Hatigumpha inscription reveals that Kharavela was the third member of the Kalingan Chedis.
In the first line of the Hathigumpha inscription, Kharavela is referred to as Chetaraja-vasa-vadhanena ( “the one who extended the family of the Cheta King”). R. D. Banerji and D. C. Sircar interpreted “Cheti” to allude to the Chedi mahajanapada dynasty, from which Kharavela descended. According to Sahu, this is false and the result of a stone crack. According to Sahu, “Chetaraja” likely alludes to Kharavela’s father and his immediate predecessor.
Additionally, the Hathigumpha inscription contains a term that has been translated as Aira or Aila. Kharavela’s successor Kudepasiri similarly identified himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana, according to a minor inscription discovered in the Mancapuri Cave. In the Hathigumpha inscription, early interpretations by researchers like as James Prinsep and R. L. Mitra identified Aira as the name of the king. This error was rectified by Indraji’s work, which demonstrated that the ruler described in the Hathugumpha inscription was Kharavela, a descendant of Mahameghavahana. The link between Mahameghavahana and Kharavela, as well as the number of kings between them, are not explicitly stated. In 1885, Indraji interpreted the inscription to construct a fictitious family tree, although this is widely disputed.
Another inscription from Guntupalli in A.P.’s West Godavari district (circa 1st century B.C.) in the same Brahmi script and Prakrit language refers to “Mahameghavahana-Kalinga- Mahisakadhipati-Siri-Sada”. The term “Cetarajavasavadhana” translates as “one who enhances the glory of the Cedi dynasty.” The most recent view in this regard is that Chetaraja was Kharavela’s father. Kharavela, Cetaraja’s son, was the third ruler of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, also called Kalingarajavamsa.
Barua and Sahu reinterpreted the word Aira or Aila as the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Arya (“noble”). Kharavela’s Mahameghavahana family may have claimed lineage from this fabled Pururavas dynasty, according to Jayaswal and Banerji’s interpretations of the same word. On the basis of later found Guntupalli inscriptions, scholars such as Sircar and Sharma assert that Kharavela was one of the ancient Mahameghavahana dynasty kings from Kalinga.
Suniti Kumar Chatterji believed “Kharavela” to be a Dravidian name, likely formed from the words kar (meaning “black and awful”) and vel (“lance”). However, Richard N. Frye did not believe Chatterji’s etymology to be adequate. According to Braj Nath Puri, it is difficult to attribute a Dravidian cultural genesis to the Kharavela dynasty or to definitively link it to South India. This notion is questioned by N. K. Sahu, who sees the “Aira” or “Aila” term in the Hathigumpha inscription as Kharavela self-identifying as an Aryan.
Career and Achievements of Kharavela
We can divide Kharavela’s career and accomplishments into two phases:
- his career as a prince and
- his career and accomplishments as a ruler.
His Princely Career
The inscription begins with a salutation to the Jaina saints and then provides insight into Kharavela’s childhood and boyhood prior to his accession to the throne. According to legend, he was born with auspicious physical characteristics and noble qualities that foreshadowed his future greatness as a ruler. Until his fifteenth year, he spent his time participating in a variety of sports and games. During this time period, he also acquired knowledge in various fields of study that were necessary for carrying out royal duties, including writing or correspondence (Lekha), finance and currency (Rupa), arithmetic (Ganana), and law (Vldhl and Vyvahara). Kharavela received training as a prince in the martial arts (Dhanuryidya), music and dance (Gandharva vidya), and religion. He became crown prince in his fifteenth year and began his probation in the practical field of administration. He was crowned king at the age of twenty-four, assuming the title Kalingadhipati, and provided a sound administration for his subjects.
Kharavela’s political career and accomplishments as a ruler
After describing his early life up to the age of 24, the Hatigumpha inscription chronologically recounts the events of his 13-year reign.
1st regnal Year: His capital has been renovated
In his first year as regent, he engaged in renovation work, repairing the gates and structures of his capital Kalinganagara, which had been destroyed by a fierce cyclone. He hired labourers to dig a deep lake and create lovely gardens. In the same year, these repairs and other public works cost him thirty-five lakhs of coins from the royal exchequer. This fact has been amply corroborated by the Sisupalgarh excavation, which uncovered remnants of defensive ramparts, gateways, and high rowers.
2nd regnal Year: Expedition against the king of Satavahana
Kharavela commanded a sizable army that included infantry, cavalry, an elephant force, and chariots. After making adequate preparations, he launched an expedition against Satakarni-I, the powerful Satavahan king, in the second year of his rule. Satakarni-I ruled a vast empire that included what is now northern Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, and the Andhra region. Kharavela’s army advanced to the Krishna river and besieged Rishikanagara, which was clearly within Satavahana territory.
3rd regnal Year: The amusement of his subjects
In the third year following the southern campaign, Kharavela entertained his subjects. In his third regnal year, Kalinganagari, Kharavela’s capital, was overcome with joy and jubilation. Kharavela possessed a mastery of all forms of music and dance. He organised a variety of performances that combined dance and music, both vocal and instrumental. He also organised ceremonials and social gatherings for the entertainment of his subjects, which included feasting and merrymaking.
4th regnal Year: Campaign in the South
In the fourth regnal year, the Kalinga war-drum was heard once more. Kharavela rallied his forces and marched back towards the Deccan. The Rathikas and Bhojakas territories to the south and north of the Nasik region were conquered. The Rathikas and Bhojakas honoured Kharavela with homage and booty.
5th regnal Year: Canal extension from Tansulia to Kalinganagari
The fifth year of Kharavela’s reign reflects his role as a benevolent king. Kharavela extended the canal from the Tansulia road to Kalinganagari in this year. This canal was dug 300 or 103 years ago by king Nanda (a Nanda king) for irrigation purposes.
6th regnal Year: Taxes remitted
Kharavela did not wage war in the sixth year of his reign, instead devoting himself to his subjects’ welfare. He absolved his kingdom’s urban and rural areas of taxes and benevolences. This demonstrates unequivocally that Kharavela’s treasury was brimming with wealth. As a benevolent ruler, he took on the responsibility of remitting taxes to his adoring subjects in order to win their hearts.
7th regnal Year: Acquiring fatherhood
Kharavela became a father in the seventh year of his reign. His queen, dubbed ‘the queen of Vajiraghara,’ gave birth to a son.
8th regnal Year: Northward expedition
Kharavela led an expedition to the north in the eighth year of his reign, attacking the city of Rajagriha and destroying Gorathagiri, which was located on the Barbara hill in the Gaya district. His victory at Rajagriha instilled fear in the yavanas who occupied Mathura at the time. They had a plan to attack Magadha following their success in that region. Hearing of Kharavela’s exploits, the yavana king fled Mathura. The yavana ruler, whose name is uncertainly read as ‘Dimita’ or ‘Dimata,’ could be Demitrius or Minandar, as several scholars have speculated. He had amassed considerable booty during that northern war campaign.
9th regnal Year: Establishment of the Great Victory Palace
In the ninth year of his reign, he spent 38 lakhs of coins to construct the ‘Great Victory Palace’ (Mahavijaya Prasadam) to commemorate his victory in the northern campaign. He had also distributed the spoils of his exploits among his empire’s Brahmins and Arhats.
10th regnal Year: Campaign in Northern India
In the tenth year, Kharavela, the embodiment of political, diplomatic, and peace principles, directed the army toward North India in search of conquest, but the outcome was obscure.
11th regnal Year: Expedition against the Confederacy of the South
He defeated a confederacy of southern powers in his eleventh year. The southern powers’ confederacy included the Cholas, Pandyas, Satpuriyas, Keralaputras, and Tamraparnis. He amassed a sizable collection of jewels, pearls, and precious stones as a token of his allegiance.
12th regnal Year: Campaign against Bruhaspati Mitra
Kharavela led a campaign against Bruhaspati Mitra, Magadha’s Sunga ruler with a vast army, in the twelfth regnal year. He dealt a crushing defeat to both the Magadhan and Anga kings. Magadha and Anga bowed in reverence and respect to Kharavela. By defeating Bruhaspati Mitra, he reclaimed the Kalinga Jina (the revered image of Kalinga) as a trophy for his victory, which had been taken 300 or 103 years earlier by a Nanda king, most likely Mahapadmananda. Additionally, he brought a vast wealth from Anga and Magadha. Indeed, Kharavela avenged the Kalingans’ defeat at the hands of the Nanda King, who had stolen Kalinga’s Jina image. The scene of Bahasatimita’s surrender at the feet of Kharavela is depicted in Udayagiri’s Ranigumpha. A scene from the Manchapuri cave depicts Kharavela’s installation of Kalinga Jina. Following his victory over the Magadhan king, the Naga king of Central India and the Pandya king of South India recognised Kharavela’s suzerainty. The Naga king presented him with jewels, elephants, horses, and deer. Additionally, the pandyan king sent him jewels as a token of his loyalty.
13th regnal Year: ave construction
Kharavela probably abandoned military activities in the thirteenth year of his reign and devoted himself to religious pursuits. He constructed 117 (1700? not possible) caves at Kumari Parvata (Udayagiri) for Jaina monks, other monks, sheers, and Arhats. This was his distinguished service to the Jaina and other monks. He resurrected the ancient Kalinga (Mukhiya Kala) art and architecture, which were on the verge of extinction. In that year, he constructed images of Jaina Tirthankaras, trees, creepers, and images of royal servants in various caves of Udaygiri and Khandagiri.
The Date of Kharavela
The date of Kharavela is highly debatable. We can date Kharavela using clues from the Hatigumpha inscription.
Ashoka captured the kingdom of Kalinga in 262-262 BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription suggests that shortly after Ashoka’s death, Kalinga regained its independence from the Maurya Empire, and Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.
In 1885, the colonial-era epigrapher Bhagwan Lal Indraji interpreted the sixteenth line of the Hathigumpha inscription as a reference to Maurya kala and the 165th year after this new timeline, which he termed the Mauryan era. According to Indraji, Kharavela was born in 127 BCE and ascended to the throne in 103 BCE. Scholars questioned Indraji’s interpretations, which have been largely rejected.
According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, the 16th line does not mention Maurya kala (“Maurya era”) but reads Mukhya kala (“the main era”). The description of Kharavela’s fifth regnal year in the Hathigumpha inscription, according to Chattopadhyaya, implies that Kharavela flourished ti-vasa-sata years after the Nandaraja. Nandaraja is identified by Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri as Mahapadma Nanda or one of his sons. The term ti-vasa-sata can mean either 103 or 300 years; however, Chattopadhyaya does not accept the former interpretation because it would contradict Ashoka’s records. He dates Kharavela to the second half of the first century BCE or the first half of the first century CE based on this evidence.
According to this inscription, Kharavela defeated Magadhan king Bahasati Mita in the twelfth year of his reign (Bruhaspati Mitra). Mitra was suffixed by the rulers of the Sunga dynasty, which arose in Magadha following the disintegration of the Mauryan empire in 187 B.C. and ruled until 40-30 B.C. Pushya Mitra was the dynasty’s first ruler, reigning from 187 B.C. to 151 B.C. Certain scholars incorrectly associate Pushya Mitra with Bruhaspati Mitra. Pushya Mitra’s son Agni Mitra succeeded him as the hero of Kalidas’ drama Malavikagnimitram. Following Agri Mitra, the Sungas became frail. Kharavela most likely defeated a later Sunga king known as Bruhaspati Mitra. As a result, his invasion of Magadha could have occurred sometime between 151 and 40 B.C. Another indication of Kharavela’s reign date is the statement in the Hatigumpha inscription that in the fifth year of his reign, Kharavela renovated a canal dug by a Nanda (Nanda Raja) 103 or 300 years (Ti-basa-sata) previously. According to some scholars, the Nanda Raja is identical to Mahapadrnananda, the powerful founder-king of Magadha’s Nanda dynasty, and Ti-basasata is their hundred years.
In order to proceed in this direction, we must know the precise year of Mahapadmananda’s reign’s inception. Using 345 B.C. as the year of Mahapadmananda’s canal digging, N. K. Sahu dates Kharavela’s coronation to 40 B.C. Kedarnath Mahapatra fixes the year of Kharavela’s coronation at 100 B.C. based on Puranic sources that state Nandas ruled for one hundred years. Using 424 B.C. as the start of Nanda rule and Ti-basa-Ita as 300 years, Kedarnath Mahapatra fixes 100 B.C. as the year of Kharavela’s coronation.
According to some palaeographers, the Hatigumpha inscription should be dated to the first century B.C. On the other hand, K.C. Panigrahi takes a contrary position. On two grounds, he accepts B.M. Barua’s identification of Nanda Raja as Asoka. To begin, there was no Nanda rule in Odisha, as Asoka claimed to be the first king of Magadha to conquer Kalinga in Rock Edict XIII. Second, given that Asoka’s grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, was known as Nandanvaya (a descendant of the Nanda family), the description of Asoka as Nanda Raja should not appear absurd. Panigrahi also reads Ti-basa-sata as 103 years, and using Asoka’s conquest of Kalinga in 261 B.C. (following which the canal was dug), he dates Kharavela’s coronation to 159 B.C. Panigrahi attributes Bruhaspati Mitra to a later Mauryan king named Bruhaspati who appears in Divyavadana. The Hatigumpha inscription also refers to Satavahan king Satakarni as a contemporary of Kharavela. Satakarni is identified as Satakarni-l, a second or first century B.C. individual. We can conclude from the preceding discussion that Kharavela cannot be earlier than the second century B.C. and no later than the first century B.C. He most likely lived in the first century B.C.
N. K. Sahu, on the other hand, has established the following chronology for Kharavela’s reign:
- Establishment of Chedi rule in Kalinga-73 B.C.,
- Birth of Kharavela-64 B.C.,
- Coronation-40 B.C., and
- Rule as Heir-apparent-49-40 B.C.
Texts from the post-colonial era continue to print a variety of dates based on their various interpretations. Alain Daniélou, for instance, dates Kharavela between 180 and 130 BCE, making him a contemporary of Satakarni and Pushyamitra Shunga. Rama Shankar Tripathi asserts that Kharavela ruled in the third quarter of the first century BCE. Numerous other researchers, including D.C. Sircar and Walter Spink, date Kharavela and the Hathigumpha inscription to the early 1st century BCE.
Religion of Kharavela
The Hathigumpha inscription begins with a refined greeting to arihants and siddhas. In the Jain Pancha-Namaskara Mantra, in addition to the arihants and siddhas, three additional creatures are invoked. Other portions of the Hathigumpha inscription and the minor inscriptions discovered at Udayagiri from the 1st century BCE contain Jain words. He is consequently commonly referred to as a Jain king.
Other researchers, such as Paul Dundas, acknowledge that he was either a Jain or an ancient king who favoured Jainism and was lauded in an inscription at a Jain monument. However, the Hathigumpha inscription expressly states that he respected all religious sects (sava-psana pjako) and repaired temples dedicated to various gods (sava-de[vya]tana-sakra-krako).
The verses of the Hathigumpha inscription provide several reasons to question Kharavela’s allegiance to the Jain tenet of ahimsa. According to Dundas, the recurrent references to violence and warfare in the inscription indicate that Kharavela did not entirely adhere to the Jain doctrine of Ahimsa (nonviolence).
Helmuth von Glasenapp asserts that he was a Jain who favoured all of his subjects (especially Jains).
Successor of Kharavela
Kulke and Rothermund both claim Kharavela’s kingdom indicate that the history of ancient India after Ashoka and Kharavela is obscure. Given the absence of significant inscriptions by his successors, it is hypothesised that the Kharavela empire dissolved shortly after his death. Little is known about the next two generations of monarchs, Vakradeva (also known as Kudepasiri or Vakadepa) and Vadukha, but minor inscriptions at Udayagiri provide some information.
To Conclude
Kharavela was unquestionably a great conqueror and empire builder during India’s early history. In this regard, he is comparable to Mahapadmananda, Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka, and Samudragupta. He was a military genius of the first order. He commanded a vast army that included a formidable elephant force, cavalry, infantry, and chariots. His political influence stretched all the way to Mathura in the north and all the way to the Pandya kingdom in the south. Conquests, on the other hand, while impressive, are fleeting. Kharavela’s historical greatness is founded on much more secure and durable foundations than mere conquests. Kharavela is regarded as a “protagonist” and a “saviour” of Jainism.
Sources and References
1. History of Odisha Vol-I by Dr Manas Kumar Das
2. History of Odisha Vol-II by Dr Manas Kumar Das
3. History of Odisha Vol-III by Dr Manas Kumar Das
4. History of Odisha Sahu, Sahu, Mishra
5. History of Odisha Vol-I by Y.K. Sahu
6. History of Odisha Vol-II by Y.K. Sahu
7. History of Odisha by RD Banerjee
8. Odishara Itihasa by Satyanarayan Rajguru
9. Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International.
