A nation’s art and architecture are considered her property. Odishan art and architecture have a dated history, dating all the way back to 261 B.C., when Asoka conquered this land, then known as Kalinga. Odisha’s art and architecture took a new direction during its formative years. The style was so refined, well-balanced, and lovely that it established a new identity for itself. This was popularly known as the Kalinga School of Art.
Odisha is world-famous for its magnificent temples. Indeed, temples are Odisha’s most prevalent and significant form of architecture. They constitute “one of India’s most compact and homogeneous architecture groups.”
Styles of temple architecture in India
Of the three temple architecture styles found in India, Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara, Odisha has adopted the Nagara style with a distinct regional flavour known as ‘Kalinga’. A 1235 A.D. inscription in the Amritesvara temple at Holal (Karnataka) mentions the four categories as Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, and Kalinga.
Texts on temple architecture
Several canonical texts were eventually written for the purpose of temple construction. Among these texts are the Bhuvana Pradipa, Bhuvanapravesa, Silpasastra, Silpasarini, Silpaprakasa, Silparatna Kosa, and Silpi pothi. These texts aided in the preservation of fundamental standards in construction, despite variations in form and size. The Silpasarini makes reference to a number of different temples, including Manjusri, Mrudanga eka bhagika, Vasusri, Mahameru, Kailasa, Ratnasara, Vartula ratha Vimana, and Suvamakuta. Each variety features a unique design inspired by a particular yantra (diagram).
Odisha’s early years of temple architecture
Temple construction in Odisha is said to have begun with the Laxamanesvara, Bharatesvara, and Satrughnesvara group of temples in Bhubaneswar in the sixth century A.D. and culminated with the Konarka Sun temple in the thirteenth century A.D. The three ruined temples of Laksamaneswar, Bharateswar, and Satrughneswar are the earliest surviving temples in Bhubaneswar. These are temples dedicated to Rekha in the triratha plan. The temples are dated to the later half of the sixth century AD based on an inscription on the Laksmaneswara. Each of them is equipped with niches on its bada for the storage of parsvadevata. The front raha of Bharateswara temple is carved with two chaitya windows, the lower of which contains the Ravananugraha form of Siva, and the upper of which contains Nataraja. These temples are unicameral, meaning they lack the Jagamohana. The Parsurameswara temple, which dates from the seventh century AD, is the best-preserved of the early group of temples. It is composed of Deula and Jagamohana. In the bada, the Deula has a tri-ratha plan, but features of Pancharatha are visible in the Gandi. The Sikhara is petite in stature and has a squat appearance. The Jagmohana is a rectangular hall with a terraced roof that slopes in two tiers and incorporates a clerestory. Another example of the early type is the Svavnajalesvara temple in Bhubaneswar. The temple, which consists entirely of vimana, bears obvious resemblances to the Parasurameswar in terms of elevation and decoration. For instance, both temples depict the marriage of Siva and Parvati almost identically.
Between the eighth and tenth centuries, temple architecture grew in popularity.
The next stage of temple architecture development is evident in temples constructed between the eighth and tenth centuries. Vaital, Sisiresvar, Uttaresvar, Mohini, and Markandesvar are among the temples dating from the eighth century in Bhubaneswar. Outside Bhubaneswar, notable temples include Bhringeswar, the Bajrakot Siva temple, the Kanakesvar temple in Kualo, the Manikesvar temple in Sukleswar, the Badgan Dakshesvar temple, and the Padmapur Nilakanthesvar temple. The Sisiresivara temple reflects the period’s changes and innovations (cir. 775 AD.). The plan is pancharatha. The front raha paga features a chaitya window with an image of Nataraja. The Jagamohana, like Parasuramesvara’s, is rectangular in plan and features a terraced roof but lacks windows and pillars. The roof is supported by the cantilever principle. It is a technological advancement in terms of architectural features.
On the south bank of Bindu Sarovar, the Mohini temple features an entirely unadorned pancharatha sikhara with a plain recessed bandhana beneath it. The Mukhasala, a recently restored pillared hall with pilasters against the side wall, is a pillared hall with plain stone blocks. The Svapnesvar temple at Kualo, near Talcher, on the bank of the Brahmani, is a severely damaged example of a panchayatana temple. As with the Satrughneswara group and Parasuramesvara, the main temple features an Astagraha Panel on the shrine’s lintel. The central temple is dedicated to Siva, while the corner shrines feature Durga, Ganesha, Surya, and Visnu.
The Durga temple in Vaidyeswara is a small shrine built in the Khakhara style and stands approximately 12 feet tall. The barrel-vaulted roof is composed of two levels, and the narrow sides are adorned with Vajramastakas depicting Ekapadasiva and Ganesa on one side, and Andhakasura badha-form of Siva and Nataraja Siva on the other. It appears to be a forerunner of the Vaital Deula, which features an oblong sanctum, a wagon-vault roof, and a mandapa similar to that of Parasuramesvara. Its architecture is unique—instead of Raha projections, the Bada features gracefully carved shallow pilasters. A miniature rekha temple stands at each of the Jagamohana’s four entrances. Though small in size, the temple’s tower is perfectly proportioned and extremely beautiful. However, the style did not flourish as a result of Sikhara Style’s popularity.
The principal innovations of the temples of the ninth and tenth centuries
Temples built in the ninth and tenth centuries developed more advanced architectural features, such as a harmonious proportion of pagas on the Bada and Gandi. The Jagamohana’s pyramidal shape developed during this time period. Singhanath temple, located in the Mahanadi’s bed in Cuttack district, and the twin temples of Nalamadhava and Siddhesvara in Gandharadi, Boud district, are examples of the period. According to V. Dehejia, Singhanath is “the most advanced of our Formative phase Temples in terms of the connection between Shrine and Mukhasala.” Mukhasala is a rectangular flat-roof structure with pillared walls. The roof is three-tiered with no indication of a clerestory in between. The Shrine Walls follow a triratha pattern. The principal innovations were the tall and slender pilasters extending up to the Bandhana level on either side of the niches.
Varahi temple in Chaurasi is described as “one of the most fascinating early Odishan temples.” According to Dehejia, it represents a transitional period in Odisha architecture. It is said to have embodied the Vimanamalini or Kamagarbha temple type described in the Silpaprakasha text. The shrine’s walls exhibit pancharatha characteristics and are reminiscent of a typical transition temple. The shrine’s Sikhara, like that of Vaital, is barrel vaulted, but it has a “richer, more baroque appearance characteristic of the transition period.” The Mukhasala is rectangular in shape, unpillared, and features a flat double-roof that is lavishly decorated with Kumbhas and Mithunas in the clerestory.
The Muktesvara temple dates from the transitional period. The sanctum is a full-fledged pancharatha in plan, and the Mandapa’s roof is a two-tiered structure crowned by a Kalasa (Vase or Jar). Its Sikhara creates a rounded appearance with graceful contours. The central projection features an elaborate chaitya window flanked by two smiling dwarfs, a precursor to the “bho” motif. It is a significant characteristic of the developed Odishan style. According to Dehejia, “early Odishan architecture reached its zenith in the exquisite little Muktesvar temple at Bhubaneswar’s edge of a tank.” Years of architectural and sculptural experience crystallised into faultless shape and dimensions here, and as if that weren’t enough, the sculptors added a lovely carved torana gateway and a low sculptured decorative wall enclosing the temple.” It is regarded as a “gem of Odishan architecture.” The Kutaitundi temple in Khiching is another fine example of lOth-century A.D. architecture. The star-shaped triple temples at Boudh, Ganeswarpur’s ruined Visnu temple, Hirapur’s 64-Yogini temple, and Ranipur Jharial may also be dated to this period. According to the Odisha State Gazetteer (Vol. Il), “the fully evolved temple style emerged in the eleventh century.” A deula of the rekha type and a Jagamohan of the pidha order became the standard types, with all of their components articulated clearly. The Pancha-kama pabhaga, Panchanga bada, multiple mouldings as haranda, introduction of Khakhara and Pidha mundi designs on the jangha, Vidalas and Kanyas in recesses, and high relief figures are just a few of the changes made during this period. With well-developed projections running vertically from the base to the bisama and angasikharas on the gandi, the deula acquired a soaring height and majestic appearance not seen in the preceding phase. Additional features of the rekha deula include the projecting lion-on-elephant motif on the raha, the insertion of figures on the beki, and so on. The Jagamohan manifested as a well-formed pidha deula, with a harmonious arrangement of pidhas in tiers and all component members contained within the mastaka.”
Growth of Odishan temple architecture between 11th century A.D. to 13th century A.D.
The Rajarani temple (l1th century AD.) is a one-of-a-kind example of temple architecture experimentation. Its Sikhara has been clustered in the Khajuraho Style by miniature repetition of the Sikhara (called angaSikhara) around the Gandi. The stunning female figures and standing Digpalas are the temple’s most striking features. The Rajarani temple and its Jagamohana, which faces east, are raised on a three-moulded platform. The bada is divided into five sections, each of which represents a progression from trianga to panchanga bada. While the vimana is a cluster of miniature Sikharas in the Rekha style, the Jagamohana is a typical pyramidal structure (pidha deula) reminiscent of the Muktesvara temple. The Jagamohana is a pancharatha structure with a kalasa on top. In comparison to the heavily carved and decorated main temple, it is surprisingly devoid of sculptures. On the rahapaga, there is no rampant lion, and the top amalaka is supported by four squat figures. The Deula appears circular due to the clustering of anga sikharas around the gandi. On the basis of the representation of angasikharas, the Silpa ratna kosa refers to the type as Manjusri (alternative names include Misragarbha, Misrarekha, Vimanagarbhaka, Vimanamauli, and Saptangagarbha). The 11th-century Brahmesvara temple. is a fully-fledged curvilinear pancharatha panchayatana temple in the traditional sense. Its pidha temple and mastaka components are fully developed and were replicated in the magnificent Lingaraja temple.
The Lingaraja is the 11th century’s loftiest, grandest, and most majestic temple. It is considered to be the pinnacle of temple architecture. It is the ideal specimen, a landmark among the entire country’s rekha temples, with fully developed Vimana, Jagamohana, Natamandira, and Bhogamandapa. The plan of the sanctum is pancharatha. The section below the spire is divided into five sections and is supported by five ornately decorated mouldings. Three of the central projections’ niches contain images of Parsva-devata. The upara jangha features tier-roofs (pidhamundis), whereas the tala jangha features miniature shrines with wagon-vaulted roofs (khakhara mundis). It is described as a shrine “……..with fully developed vimana, Jagamohana, natamandira, and bhogamandapa in the mature and blooming Odishan style.” The parabolic curve of the tower, which rises to a great height, lends the temple an unmatched grandeur. The towering Sikhara’s height and soaring character are accentuated by the deeply incised lines of the rathas (vertical projections), a pair of which bear four diminishing replicas of the tower as a decorative pattern.”
The Lingaraja temple pattern was adopted by a number of temples, including Kedaresvara in Bhubaneswar, Jalesvara in Kalarbhanga, and Gatesvara in Algem. Puri’s Jagannatha temple is “by far the most significant temple of the 12th century and the highest extant temple in Odisha.” Like the Lingaraja, the Jagannatha temple is composed of four components: Deula, Jagmohana, Natamandira, and Bhogamandapa. The recent removal of plaster coats from the bada and gandi revealed the temple’s plan and decoration. Pancharatha is the plan, with rounded and projecting kanika. Ten bhumis comprise the kanika. Numerous baranda mouldings form the gandi’s base. The transition from bada to gandi is almost imperceptible. Although it is a very tall tower (approximately 215′), it lacks the ‘elegance and proportion of the Lingaraja’. The first bhumi of the raha features horizontal projections of four angasikharas, two on either side of the Garuda motif that crowns the baranda’s vajramastaka. Jagamohana is a complete pidha deula with a pyramidal roof. The temple is surrounded by two compound walls, each with four gates pointing in four directions.
The Meghesvara temple in Bhubaneswar (circa 1195 AD.) is a significant structure in the development of Odishan temple architecture. It is elevated on a platform. It is composed of seven fully formed pilasters that give the appearance of a rounded structure. The intermediate pilasters are adorned with a series of miniature sikharas that extend all the way to the top and become a part of the walls. Half-amalakas have been used in place of anga-sikharas on the comer pilasters. Jagamohana is an unadorned pidha temple with a single door and two balustraded windows. The most significant change to the plan was the substitution of saptaratha for pancharatha. This is the earliest known instance of Saptaratha.
Temple architecture reached its pinnacle in the 13th century AD. with the construction of the Konark Sun Temple. It is accurately stated that “its advancement is marked by the fusion of sculpture and architectural magnificence, the chariotcar concept, the completely detached natamandira, and the provision of a high basement for the sanctum and Jagamohana.” The intact Jagamohana compensates for the tower’s absence. Its audacious conception, massive execution, flawless proportions, and imposing dimensions instil an indescribable sense of awe and amazement in the visitor.” (Art Traditions of Odisha, Odisha Sahitya Akademy) The temple is conceived as the Sun god’s mythical chariot, with twenty-four wheels and seven richly caparisoned horses. Each wheel is a work of Indian art. Indeed, the conception elevates it to the status of a “beautiful monument unique in the realm of art.” The main temple, which is no longer standing, was said to stand at a height of 228 feet. The colossal Jagamohana that has survived speaks volumes about the Kalinga style of architecture. Its plan is pancharatha and it stands on a pista. It is a pidha-deula with a three-tiered pyramidal roof, in contrast to the Lingaraja and Jagannatha temples’ two-tiered roofs. The interior is a 60-foot square on each side, with a four-pillared ceiling supported by iron beams. It has three entrances with finely carved doorjambs and lintels of chlorite stone.
In contrast to the temple’s Lingaraja and Jagamohana, the natamandira is a detached structure, standing thirty feet in front of the Jagamohana. It is elevated on a sumptuously decorated platform. The mandira is a lavishly embellished pillared hall. The temple complex measures 865 x 540 feet in size. The plinth and pedestal are 16 feet 6 inches in length. The stylobate is appropriate for the nine-foot-nine-inch-diameter giant wheels. Each of the seven horses—four on the right and three on the left—stands at a height of 5 feet 2 inches. Most importantly, the temple is designed to receive the first rays of the Sun, the temple’s presiding god. Abul Fazl, Akbar’s court historian, recounted the existence of 28 temples within the grand complex surrounding the Sun temple. The ruins of Chhayadevi’s temple attest to this fact. He describes the Sun temple as follows: “Near Jagnnath is a temple dedicated to the sun.” Its cost was covered by the province’s revenue for twelve years. Even those with critical judgement and a difficult disposition are taken aback at its sight.” On the other hand, Sir John Marshall was taken aback by the grandiose design and singular execution, remarking, “There is no Hindu monument, I believe, that is simultaneously as stupendous and so perfectly proportioned as the Black Pagode, and none that leaves such a deep impression on the memory.”