Historical Geography of Odisha: Understanding a region’s geography is crucial for conducting a comprehensive historical analysis. Without precise knowledge of the locations mentioned in historical records, tracing the course of events becomes challenging. Moreover, a state’s physical features play a significant role in shaping its society, economy, and political landscape.
This intricate relationship between geography and history forms the basis of historical geography—the practice of reconstructing the geographic landscape of a past era. By analyzing scattered historical evidence, scholars can piece together the territorial, cultural, and economic aspects of a region as they existed in ancient times.
The historical geography of Odisha holds particular significance due to its rich and evolving identity. Throughout history, Odisha has been known by several names, including Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali, Kangoda, and Kosala. Each of these geographic entities is referenced in various historical sources, shedding light on the shifting boundaries, cultural interactions, and political developments that have shaped Odisha over the centuries. Understanding these historical divisions provides valuable insights into the region’s past and its enduring legacy.
Table of Contents
The following are the ancient geographical units:
Kalinga
Kalinga was a prominent political entity in ancient India, known for its fertile coastal plains that extended from the Ganges delta in the north to the Godavari River in the south, with its western borders defined by mountainous and forested terrain. It is frequently mentioned in ancient texts alongside Anga, Vanga, Pundra, and Sumha.
The Mahabharata provides key insights into Kalinga’s location and extent. The sage Lomasa describes it as the land where the Vaitarani River flows, confirming that much of present-day Odisha was part of the Kalinga region, though its precise boundaries remain uncertain. Early Greek sources, such as Megasthenes, further support this, stating that Kalinga’s eastern border was the Ganges. Pliny, a Roman historian, divides Kalinga into Gangarides Calingae, Maceo Calingae, and Calingae, suggesting that its southern boundary extended to the Godavari River.
Puranic texts, including the Matsya, Kurma, and Skanda Puranas, describe Kalinga’s western frontier as the Amrakantaka hills on the Narmada River. Thus, according to these sources, Kalinga stretched:
- North to the Gangetic valley
- South to the Godavari River
- East to the Bay of Bengal
- West to the Amrakantaka hills
Although Kalinga is absent from the Pali canon’s list of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great states of the 6th century BCE), this does not indicate its non-existence. Historical records confirm that the Nandas ruled Kalinga in the 4th century BCE, though the region briefly regained independence before being annexed by the Mauryan Empire after Ashoka’s Kalinga War in 261 BCE.
Ashoka’s Kalinga Edicts, found at Dhauli (near Bhubaneswar) and Jaugada (Ganjam district), provide crucial administrative details. They reveal that Kalinga was divided into two major regions:
- Tosali (northern capital)
- Samapa (southern capital)
These inscriptions confirm that during Ashoka’s reign, Kalinga encompassed modern Odisha, though its precise northern and southern boundaries remain debated.
By the 2nd century BCE, Odisha was definitively known as Kalinga, as evidenced by the Hatigumpha Inscription at Udayagiri, which refers to King Kharavela as Kalingadhipati (Lord of Kalinga). Under his rule, Kalinga expanded into a powerful empire, though the exact extent of his domain is still debated. Despite the eventual decline of his empire, the region retained the name Kalinga.
By the 4th century CE, Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha suggests that Kalinga had split into two regions, with the northern part identified as Utkala. Samudragupta’s southern campaigns targeted Kalinga, including Ganjam, Godavari, and Visakhapatnam districts. Although early copper plates (e.g., Sumandala Copper Plates) reference Kalinga, the name gradually disappears from later medieval records. However, it remained a geographic identifier for the area between Ganjam and the Godavari during the Ganga and Suryavamsi periods.
The capital of early Kalinga, Dantapura, remains unidentified, with ongoing scholarly debates and archaeological investigations. Kalinganagara, the capital under Kharavela, is believed to be Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneswar. The Early Eastern Gangas later ruled from Mukhalingam (Srikakulam district), though alternative locations have been suggested. With Chodaganga’s conquest of Odisha (c. 1110 CE), the Ganga capital moved to Kataka (Cuttack), placing it centrally within the newly expanded kingdom.
Kalinga’s legacy, as a powerful and independent entity, persisted throughout history, shaping the cultural and political landscape of Odisha and beyond.
Utkala
The territory of Utkala is extensively mentioned in various Puranas, with one origin story tracing its foundation to Vaivasvata Manu’s son, Ila-Sudyumna. According to legend, Utkala was one of the regions that emerged from Ila-Sudyumna’s lineage and became part of the kingdom granted by Manu.
The Mahabharata situates Utkala alongside neighboring regions such as Odras, Mekala, Kalinga, Darsana, and Andhra. Similarly, the Ramayana references Utkala, leading some scholars to suggest that the name predates Kalinga. Kalidasa’s Raghuvamśa further describes Utkala as a neighboring kingdom of Kalinga.
Epigraphic Evidence and Evolution
The earliest epigraphic reference to Utkala’s geographical extent appears in the Midnapur Plates of Somadatta. However, the name disappears from records for a significant period before reappearing in the Adhabhara Plates of Mahanannararaja (Sasivamsa dynasty) in the late 7th century CE, where Utkala is placed within the early Somavamsi Kingdom of Kosala.
The name Utkala persisted in copper plate grants through the reigns of the Ganga and Pala dynasties. During the rule of Ramapala and Chodaganga Deva, inscriptions suggest that Utkala encompassed the entire modern-day Odisha. Records from this period also describe the reinstatement of Karnadeva, the last Somavamsi king, by Chodaganga Deva. Even today, Utkala is used synonymously with Odisha, preserving its historical significance.
Early Capital and Cultural Legacy
The earliest capital of Utkala was Viraja, as evidenced by the Soro Copper Plates. This corresponds to present-day Jajpur, which remains home to the Viraja shrine, also mentioned in Bhauma copper plate inscriptions. Additionally, the Bhauma capital of Guhadeva Pataka (or Gudhesvara Pataka) was located nearby, further highlighting Jajpur’s historical importance in the region’s early governance.
Odra
Origins of the Name “Odisha”
The modern name “Odisha” traces its roots to the ancient terms Odra, Udra, and Odraka. Muslim geographers of the 9th and 10th centuries CE referred to the region as Urshin or Ursfin, terms likely recorded during the Bhauma-Kara dynasty. These sources divide the Bhauma kingdom into:
- Urshin/Ursfin – Odisha proper
- Myas – Possibly Mahishya or Midnapore
- Harkhand – Odisha’s hilly regions
- Andras – Andhra region
This suggests that the name “Odisha” was in use by at least the 10th century CE. The Tibetan historian Taranatha refers to the region as Odivisa, likely a variation of Odisa, a term also found in early Muslim accounts and Oriya literature.
Odra in Ancient Texts
The term Odra appears in multiple ancient sources:
- Pali texts mention Oddaka.
- Greek writers refer to the region as Oretes, which corresponds to Odra in Sanskrit texts.
- The Bhagavata Purana describes Odra as a descendant of Dirghatamas, suggesting that the land was named after him.
- Pliny the Elder places the Oretes near Malus mountain (likely Malayagiri in Angul district).
- The Manusmriti also references the Odra people.
Inscriptions and Chinese Accounts
The earliest epigraphic reference to Odra as a Visaya (district) appears in the Soro Copper Plates of Somadatta, placing it within Uttara Tosali.
The Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Yuan Chwang) describes Odra (Wu-cha) as a vast coastal kingdom stretching to Puri district, where the kingdom of Kongoda emerged. He mentions two key locations:
- Che-li-ta-lo (unidentified)
- Pue-sie-poki-li (tentatively identified as Puspagiri)
Recent scholarship suggests Puspagiri corresponds to the Buddhist “Diamond Triangle” (Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri), though further research is needed for confirmation.
Odra in Medieval Dynasties
Odra as a kingdom prominently appears in inscriptions of the Somavamsis and later dynasties, reinforcing its historical and cultural significance in shaping the identity of modern Odisha.
Toshali
Tosala, or Tosali, was a significant geopolitical entity in ancient Odisha, frequently mentioned in early Indian texts. The Atharva Veda references it, while the Puranas associate its inhabitants with various cultural and social groups. Jaina texts, such as the Avasyaka Niryukti, describe Lord Mahavira’s travels through Tosali, detailing the hardships he faced—at one point, he was mistaken for a robber and narrowly escaped execution due to the intervention of local Kshatriyas.
The Dhauli Rock Edict of Emperor Ashoka identifies Tosali as a city, possibly corresponding to modern-day Sisupalgarh. Over time, references to Tosali (or Tosala) expanded to denote a broader territorial region. The Buddhist text Gandavyuha mentions a country called Amita Tosala, with its capital at Tosala.
Medieval copper plate inscriptions, particularly those from the Bhauma dynasty, indicate that Tosali was divided into two regions:
- Uttara Tosali (Northern Tosali) – Encompassing modern-day Midnapore, Mayurbhanj, Balasore, and northern Cuttack.
- Dakshina Tosali (Southern Tosali) – Covering modern Puri, parts of Cuttack, and Ganjam up to the Rishikulya River.
The Mahanadi River likely served as the natural boundary between these two divisions. Scholars like N.K. Sahu have drawn insights from copper plate records to reconstruct the geographical extent of these regions, highlighting Tosali’s historical and administrative significance in ancient Odisha.
Kangoda
Kongoda, an important geographical and political region in ancient Odisha, rose to prominence under the Sailodbhava dynasty. The name Kongoda is believed to derive from the Tamil word Kongu, meaning honey, possibly translating to “Land of Honey.” This mandala state thrived between the 6th and 7th centuries CE, eventually becoming part of both Kalinga and Odra. The Sailodbhavas played a crucial role in defining the Kongoda Mandala, which roughly corresponds to the present-day undivided Ganjam district.
Hiuen Tsang’s Account of Kongoda (638 CE)
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited Kongoda in 638 CE, described it as having a circumference of over 1,000 li (approximately 200 miles). He noted a densely populated landscape with numerous towns, forts, and settlements stretching from the hills to the Bay of Bengal coast, indicating a strong and prosperous kingdom under Sailodbhava rule.
Scholar T. Watters, analyzing Hiuen Tsang’s accounts, suggests that the many fortified towns in Kongoda contributed to a formidable army capable of deterring external threats. Some of the towns recorded by Hiuen Tsang include:
- Gudda
- Kondenda
- Saumyapura
- Matrachandra-pataka
- Jaya Kataka
- Devagrama
- Nivina
- Phasika
Although their exact locations remain unidentified, the capital of Kongoda, Vijaya Kongodavasaka, has been tentatively identified as modern-day Bankada, based on antiquities found along the Salia River.
Kongoda Under Harsavardhana and the Sailodbhavas
Following King Sasanka of Gauda’s death, Harsavardhana conquered Kongoda, likely turning it into a fortified outpost to protect against the eastern advance of Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas, as theorized by historian R.S. Tripathi.
However, after Harsavardhana’s death in 647 CE, Madhavaraja II, the Sailodbhava king of Kongoda, regained power and ruled for a significant period, as confirmed by his Cuttack charter. Under his leadership, Kongoda once again flourished as an independent kingdom.
Decline and Integration into Dakshina Tosali
Despite its resurgence, Kongoda’s golden age faded with the decline of the Sailodbhava dynasty in the early 8th century CE. Subsequently, the Bhauma-Karas emerged as the dominant power in Odisha, unifying North and South Tosali. Kongoda was eventually reduced to a Visaya (district) within Dakshina Tosali, marking the end of its era as a powerful kingdom.
Kosala
Kosala was an important geographical and political entity in ancient Odisha, with its earliest mention found in the Parisiṣṭha of the Atharvaveda. The epics and Purāṇas further illuminate its historical significance. Like other ancient Odia regions, Kosala derived its name from its people—the Kosalas.
Geographical and Mythological Origins
Kosala was historically divided into Uttara (North) Kosala and Dakṣiṇa (South) Kosala. The origins of Dakṣiṇa Kosala are linked to Rāma, the legendary prince of Ayodhyā. During his exile, Rāma, along with Lakṣmaṇa and Sītā, spent considerable time in what is now modern-day Chhattisgarh. Scholar Pargiter suggests that this prolonged stay led to the region being called Dakṣiṇa Kosala, an extension of Rāma’s homeland in the south.
The Rāmāyaṇa also narrates the division of Kosala after Rāma’s demise. His sons, Lava and Kuśa, ruled Uttara Kosala and Dakṣiṇa Kosala, respectively. Śrāvastī emerged as the political center of Uttara Kosala, while Kuśavatī (Kuśthalīpura), near the Vindhya mountains, became the seat of power in Dakṣiṇa Kosala.
Kosala in Classical Texts and Historical Records
The Mahābhārata’s Vana Parva references Kosala, notably without mentioning Uttara Kosala (Ayodhyā region). According to H.C. Raychaudhuri, Dakṣiṇa Kosala corresponded to parts of modern Bilaspur, Raipur, and undivided Sambalpur.
Kosala’s historical significance is further attested by Samudragupta’s Allahabad Pillar Inscription, which records his conquest of the region. Later, Kosala became part of the Vākāṭaka Empire, alongside Mekala and Mālava, before falling under the Śarabhapuriyas.
Hiuen Tsang’s Account and Somavaṁśī Rule
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited Kosala in 639 CE, estimated its size at 6,000 li in circumference. His accounts suggest that Kosala encompassed not only parts of modern-day Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur and Raipur) but also the Odia regions of Sundargarh, Sambalpur, and Bolangir.
During the 8th and 9th centuries CE, Kosala remained under the Somavaṁśī dynasty. However, the growing power of the Kalachuris of Dahala forced the Somavaṁśīs to relocate their capital multiple times. Initially headquartered at Śrīpura, which later fell to the Kalachuris, the Somavaṁśīs moved their administration to Murshing, Rampur, and Binaka in Bolangir, identified as Murasimakataka, Arāma, and Vinitapura, respectively.
Following the annexation of the Khiñjali-maṇḍala, Yajatinagara became the capital of Kosala. By the mid-11th century CE, Somavaṁśī king Yajati II unified Kosala and Utkala, establishing dual capitals—Suvarṇapura (modern Sonepur) for Kosala and Yajatinagara (Viraja in Jajpur) for Utkala.
Later Dynastic Rule and Integration into Odisha
With the decline of the Somavaṁśīs in the 11th century CE, the Telugu Chodas briefly occupied Kosala before being overthrown by the Kalachuris. The Kalachuris ruled until the mid-14th century CE, when the Ganga dynasty rose to power.
Following the Gangas, the Chauhans emerged as the dominant force in Kosala, making Sambalpur their administrative center. They ruled over eighteen states (Aṭhāragarha), encompassing much of the Kosala region described by Hiuen Tsang.
Kosala’s Role in Odisha’s Political and Cultural History
Kosala, along with Kaliṅga, Utkala, Oḍra, Tośalī, and Koṅgoḍa, played a crucial role in shaping Odisha’s historical landscape. The territorial boundaries of these regions shifted over time, and at times, their names were used interchangeably. For instance, Odra was referred to as Tośalī during the Bhaumakara period.
By the early 15th century CE, poet Sarala Dasa identified “Udisa” or Odisha with Odrarāṣṭra, the land that later became Odisha Rājya under the mighty Gajapati rulers. Since the reign of Kapilendradeva (1435–1467 CE), Odisha has remained the name of the land of the Odia-speaking people.
Sources and References
1. History of Odisha Vol-I by Dr Manas Kumar Das
2. History of Odisha Vol-II by Dr Manas Kumar Das
3. History of Odisha Vol-III by Dr Manas Kumar Das
4. History of Odisha Sahu, Sahu, Mishra
5. History of Odisha Vol-I by Y.K. Sahu
6. History of Odisha Vol-II by Y.K. Sahu
7. History of Odisha by RD Banerjee
8. Odishara Itihasa by Satyanarayan Rajguru
